o Theory X: (developed by McGregor to describe how managers relate to subordinates)
§ Most people dislike their work and will avoid it.
§ Most people lack ambition and have little capacity for problem solving and creativity.
§ Workers prefer direction and avoid taking responsibility and initiative.
§ Workers motivated only by Maslow's lower level needs (physiological and safety).
§ Workers are self-centered, indifferent to the needs of the organization, and resistant to change.
o Theory Y: (also developed by McGregor)
§ Most people meet high performance expectations if appropriately motivated and the climate supportive.
§ Most people are creative, imaginative, ambitious, and committed to meeting the organization's goals.
§ Most people are self-disciplined, can direct and control themselves, desire responsibilities, and accept them willingly.
§ Workers are motivated by Maslow's higher level needs (self esteem and self actualization)
o Theory Z: (Developed by Ouchi. The source was the Japanese workplace)
§ Similar characteristics as Theory Y.
§ Management deems workers as trustworthy and capable of working without close supervision.
§ Workers are motivated by self esteem and self actualization.
§ Japanese management provides a supportive environment with lifetime employment, consensus decision making, and collective responsibility.
§ Ouchi compared Japanese organizations (Type J) with traditional American organizations (Type A).
§ Ouchi theorized that to the extent lifetime employment, consensus decision making, and collective responsibility could be incorporated into American organizations, then worker productivity and motivation would improve.
§ Ouchi called this new hybrid American organization, Type Z.
o Contingency Theory: (Developed by Morse and Lorsch)
§ People have a central need to develop a sense of competence. This need continues to motivate even after competence has been achieved.
§ Project managers should ensure that there is a good match between team members' skills and their assignments and that the organizational climate is conducive to meeting team members needs and achieving a sense of competence.
o Goal Setting Theory: (Developed by Latham and Locke)
§ Working towards a goal is a major source of job motivation.
§ Individuals have an internal desire to achieve goals.
§ Clear, specific, concise, and challenging goals motivate team members.
§ Project participants must be allowed to participate in setting goals, formulating plans and implementation strategies in order to gain participants' acceptance and commitment to meeting project goals.
o Expectancy Theory: (Developed by Victor Vroom)
§ People think seriously about how much effort they should put into a task before doing it.
§ Motivation occurs if there is an expectation of a favorable outcome.
§ A person's behavior is based on the strength of their expectation that an act will be followed by a desired outcome or good performance.
§ A person's behavior is based on their expectation that good performance will be rewarded. The attractiveness of the reward to the individual also influences a person's behavior.
§ Project managers should try to ascertain the most important needs of their team via informal communication and by developing interrelationships with team members.
o Reinforcement Theory: (Based on Skinner's behavior modification theories)
§ Human behavior is shaped by the previous positive or negative outcomes experienced by a person.
§ Desirable behavior will be repeated if rewarded and undesirable behavior can be discouraged by punishment.
o Equity Theory: (Developed by Adams)
§ People are motivated by their desire to be treated equitably.
§ People compare their jobs and compensation with those of others on the project. Inequities can influence the degree of effort they exert.
§ Inequities can result in conflicts and problems, thus requiring considerable effort from the project manager, functional managers, and human resources personnel to resolve.
§ Project managers must ensure that all project participants are compensated fairly for their contributions to project success.
· See Verma's, HR Skill for the PM, pg. 75, for general suggestions on motivating employees. The suggestions are taken from the best of the above motivation strategies.